Harvard Referencing

Pencantuman referensi diperlukan untuk setiap tulisan ilmiah yang dibuat oleh para akademis,
termasuk di dalamnya pelajar dan mahasiswa. Tujuan dari pencantuman ini untuk membuktikan
kebenaran sumber informasi dan menjaga kredibilitas penulis yang bersangkutan. Referensi juga
menunjukan bahwa isi tulisan dapat dipertanggung-jawabkan dan bukan hasil penjiplakan karya
orang lain. Dengan mereferensikan sumber informasi, seorang penulis telah membuktikan bahwa
dia seorang akademis yang berintegritas dan dapat dipercaya.
Panduan ini dibuat untuk membantu para akademis dalam mereferensikan sumberinformasi dalam tulisannya. Model referensi yang digunakan adalah model Pengarang-T(Author-Date) atau yang lebih populer dengan nama sistem referensi Harvard. Sistem Harvard telah dipergunakan secara luas di lingkungan akademis di seluruh dunia, dan panduan ini diharapkan dapat mempermudah para penulis dalam mempergunakan sistem referensi tersebut.
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TEORI SEMIOTIK

TEORI SEMIOTIK

Pelajari ini aja ya....(kisi-kisi)

What is a Computer?

A computer allows users to store and process information quickly and automatically.

A computer is a programmable machine.  It allows the user to store all sorts of information and then ‘process’ that information, or data, or carry out actions with the information, such as calculating numbers or organising words.

Computer: A machine that can receive and store information and change or process it.

Information: Knowledge that is communicated.

Data (pl.): The representation of information in a formalised manner suitable for communication, interpretation and processing, generally by a computer system.  Note: the term ‘raw data’ refers to unprocessed information.

Computers can be generally classified by size and power, although there can be considerable overlap.  Following are descriptions of several different types of computers.

Mainframe computers are large-sized, powerful multi-user computers that can support concurrent programs.  That means, they can perform different actions or ‘processes’ at the same time.  Mainframe computers can be used by as many as hundreds or thousands of users at the same time.  Large organisations may use a mainframe computer to execute large-scale processes such as processing the organisation’s payroll.

Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-processing computers.  Again, they can perform several actions at the same time and can support from 4 to 200 users simultaneously.  In recent years the distinction between mini-computers and small mainframes has become blurred.  Often the distinction depends upon how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.  Organisations may use a mini-computer for such tasks as managing the information in a small financial system or maintaining a small database of information about registrations or applications.

Workstations are powerful, single-user computers.  They have the capacity to store and process large quantities of data, but they are only used by one person at a time.  However, workstations are typically linked together to form a computer network called a local area network, which means that several people, such as staff in an office, can communicate with each other and share electronic files and data.

Computer network: A grouping of computers and peripherals connected together by telecommunications links to enable a group of users to share and exchange information.

Networks are discussed in more detail later in this module.

A workstation is similar to a personal computer but is more powerful and often comes with a higher-quality monitor.  In terms of computing power, workstations lie in between personal computers and mini-computers.  Workstations commonly support applications that require relatively high-quality graphics capabilities and a lot of memory, such as desktop publishing, software development and engineering applications.

Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of computer in use today.  The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. Today, the world of PCs is basically divided between IBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible machines, named after the two computer manufacturers.  Computers may be called ‘desktop’ computers, which stay on the desk, or ‘laptop’ computers, which are lightweight and portable.  Organisations and individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organisation of spreadsheets and database management.  Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago, and today there is little distinction between PCs and workstations.

What are the Components of a Computer?

Computers are made up of two parts: the hardware and the software.

Hardware: The physical equipment required to create, use, manipulate and store electronic data.

Software: The computerised instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute particular functions or tasks.

All computers require the following hardware components:

·         central processing unit (CPU)

Central processing unit (CPU): The chip or chips at the heart of a computer that enable it to process data. Also known as a processor.

·         memory

Memory: An area within a computer system that holds data waiting to be processed.

·         storage device

Storage device: The place where a computer puts data.

·         input devices : the devices that allow data and instructions to enter a computer (such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner)

Input: Any resource required for the functioning of a process, in the course of which it will be transformed into one or more outputs.

·         output devices: the devices that allow information to be represented (that is, given out) to the user, such as a display screen or printer)

Output: The product of the transformation of inputs by a process.

Printers, scanners and external disk drives that may be connected to the computer are also sometimes called ‘peripheral devices’.

Peripheral device: Any piece of equipment in a computer system that is not actually inside the computer itself.

The central processing unit (CPU) is the heart of the computer.  It carries out all of the instructions given in a program, such as a word processing or spreadsheet program.  The CPU consists of one or more chips (another name for “integrated circuits”).

Chip: A small piece of semi-conducting material (such as silicon) about 1 centimetre (¼ inch) square on which an integrated circuit is embedded.  An integrated circuit is a number of electronic components joined together to form a path for electricity.  Central processing unit chips contain the circuits representing the CPU.

A microprocessor is a particular type of chip.  The original IBM personal computer used the Intel 8088 microprocessor.  Most of today’s microcomputers are designed around a microprocessor from one of two product families: x86 or Power.  The 80286, 80386, and 80486 models that followed were referred to by the last three digits, 286, 386, and 486.  For the next generation, however, Intel broke with tradition and introduced the Pentium in 1993.  In 1997, it introduced the Pentium II to address multi-media applications, and most recently the Pentium III to address the new opportunities provided by access to large volumes of information on the world wide Web.  Other manufacturers of chips (such as Cyrix) produce chips of similar power and capabilities.

CPU’s are not all equal.  Some process data faster than others.  A computer contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing of all systems operations.  The system clock operates at a speed quite different from a clock that keeps track of the time of the day.  The system clock determines the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction, and therefore limits the number of instructions the computer can complete within a specific amount of time.  The time to complete an instruction execution cycle is measured in megahertz (MHz) or millions of cycles per second.  Although some instructions require multiple cycles to complete, the processor speed should be thought of in terms of the number of instructions the processor can execute in one second.  Today, microprocessor speeds exceed 300 MHz.  If all other specifications are identical, then higher megahertz ratings means faster processing.

When determining what type of computer you are using or considering what type of computer to acquire, it is important to know that these terms – 286, 386, 486, Pentium – refer to the type of processor in the computer.  Newer computers will come with Pentium microprocessors (or the equivalent from other manufacturers); older ones with microprocessors from the x86 family.

It is important to know the type of processor in your computer.  Some newer computer programs will not run on older processors, and some newer processors are too sophisticated for older software.

The faster the processor in a computer, the more quickly the computer will perform operations.

The most common type of memory that most users are familiar with is ‘main memory’ or ‘RAM’ (random-access memory).

Random access memory (RAM): An area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds a user’s data, operating system instructions and program instructions.

The word ‘main’ is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as the hard drive or disk drives.  Note that the term ‘mass storage’ refers to various techniques and devices for storing large amounts of data; mass storage is distinct from memory because it retains data even when the computer is turned off.  Thus mass storage is sometimes referred to as ‘auxiliary storage’.  Following are definitions of common storage devices:

Storage: The area within a computer system where data can be left on a longer term basis while it is not needed for processing.

Diskette. A small, removable, flexible mylar plastic disk covered with a thin layer of a magnetisable substance, onto which digital data can be recorded and stored.  Also known as a floppy disk.

Hard drive: The storage area within the computer itself, where megabytes of space are available to store bits of information.  Also known as a hard disk.

Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to read and write data on a disk.  Also known as a laser disk.

Magnetic tape: A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic oxide; the tape is divided into parallel tracks onto which data may be recorded by selectively magnetising parts of the surface, or spots, in each of the tracks.  The data can then be stored and reused.

How Does a Computer Work?

A computer functions in the following manner:

·         The computer accepts input.  Computer input is whatever is entered or fed into a computer system.  Input can be supplied by a person (such as by using a keyboard) or by another computer or device (such as a diskette or CD-ROM).  Some examples of input include the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, instructions for completing a process, pictures, and so on.

·         The computer performs useful operations, manipulating the data in many ways.  This manipulation is called processing.  Examples of processing include performing calculations, sorting lists of words or numbers, modifying documents and pictures according to user instructions, and drawing graphs.  A computer processes data in the CPU.

Process: A systematic series of actions a computer uses to manipulate data.

·         The computer stores data.  A computer must store data so that it is available for processing.  Most computers have more than one location for storing data (the hard drive or C:\, and the floppy drive or A:\).  The place where the computer stores the data depends on how the data is being used.  The computer puts the data in one place while it is waiting to be processed and another place when it is not needed for immediate processing.  The storage of data in the computer is called ‘online storage’ while the storage of data on computer tapes, diskettes or CD‑ROMs is called ‘offline storage’.

·         The computer produces output.  Computer output is information that has been produced by a computer.  Some examples of computer output include reports, documents, music, graphs, and pictures.  Output can be in several different formats, such as paper, diskette, or on screen.

A computer receives data as input, processes it, stores it and then produces output.

Untuk Speaking IV

Nilai Akhir DIII/MI/TI

Bagi yang nilainya 50 kebawah tolong secepatnya kirimkan jawaban soal semester ke abdul.muhid09@gmail.com, paling lambat malam sabtu jam 12. tanggal 17 Januari 2014

Nilai MI

 Nilai TI

Speaking IV

 These are the topics you should agree or disagree, take a topic based on your attendant list no. develop the topic of around 7 minutes elaboration for next week. 

prepare them well, you should debate one's argument.

1.      English should be the language of education in developing countries

2.      We should support the commercialization of local culture

3.      Physic education should not be a compulsory subject in schools

4. The medical students in developing nations should be required to undertake 5 years in remote areas

5.      Professional sporting events should no longer consider gender categories

6.    Developing nations have the right to prioritize their economic development over the environment

7.      Government ban corporations to financially support political candidates running for election

8.      We require tobacco companies to use plain packaging for its products

9.      FIFA should no longer embrace human error and apply technology within their refereeing

10.   Government officials should be allowed to go on strike as a form of protest against central government policies